Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive malignant primary brain tumor occurring in humans. GBM involves glial cells; it accounts for 52% of all functional tissue brain tumor cases and 20% of all intracranial tumors. Its estimated frequency of occurrence is 2-3 cases per 100,000 people in Europe and North America.
GBM has an extremely poor prognosis, despite various treatment methods including open craniotomy with surgical resection of as much of the tumor as possible, followed by sequential or concurrent chemoradiotherapy, antiangiogenic therapy with bevacizumab, gamma knife radiosurgery, and symptomatic management with corticosteroids. The median survival time for GBM is only 14 months.
Common symptoms of GBM include seizures, nausea, vomiting, headache, and hemiparesis. However, the single most prevalent symptom of GBM is progressive memory, personality, or neurological deficit due to involvement of the temporal or frontal lobe of the brain. The kind of symptoms produced by GBM depends highly on the location of the tumor and less on its exact pathology. The tumor can start producing symptoms quickly, but occasionally is asymptomatic until it reaches an extremely large size.
The etiology of GBM is largely unknown. For unknown reasons, GBM occurs more frequently in males. Most glioblastoma tumors appear to be sporadic, without any significant genetic predisposition. No links have been found between GBM, and several known carcinogenic risk factors, including diet, smoking, and exposure to electromagnetic fields. There have been some suggestions of a viral etiology, possibly SV40 or cytomegalovirus. There may also be some association between exposure to ionizing radiation and GBM. Additionally, it has been proposed that there is a link between polyvinyl chloride exposure and GBM; lead exposure in the workplace has also been suggested as a possible cause. There is an association of brain tumor incidence and malaria, suggesting that the anopheles mosquito, the carrier of malaria, might transmit a virus or other causative agent of GBM.
GBM is also relatively more common in people over 50 years of age, in Caucasians or Asians, and in patients that have already developed a low-grade astrocytoma which can develop into a higher grade tumor. Additionally, having one of the following genetic disorders is associated with an increased incidence of GBM: neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, Von Hippel-Lindau disease, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, or Turcot syndrome.
GBM tumors are typically characterized by the presence of small areas of necrotizing tissue that are surrounded by anaplastic cells. These characteristics, together with the presence of hyperplastic blood vessels, differentiate these malignancies from Grade 3 astrocytomas, which do not have these features.
There are four subtypes of glioblastoma. An extremely large fraction (97%) of tumors in the so-called “classical” subtype carry extra copies of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene and most of these tumors have higher than normal expression of EGFR, whereas the gene TP53, a tumor suppressor gene that has a number of anticancer activities, and which is often mutated in glioblastoma, is rarely mutated in this subtype. In contrast, the proneural subtype often has high rates of alteration in TP53 and in PDGFRA, the gene encoding the α-type platelet-derived growth factor receptor, as well as in IDH1, the gene encoding isocitrate dehydrogenase-1. The mesenchymal subtype is characterized by high rates of mutations or alterations in NF1, the gene encoding Neurofibromin type 1 and fewer alterations in the EGFR gene and less expression of EGFR than the other subtypes.
GBM usually forms in the cerebral white matter, grows quickly, and can become very large before producing symptoms. Less than 10% of GBMs form more slowly following degeneration of low-grade astrocytoma or anaplastic astrocytoma; such tumors are called secondary GBMs and are relatively more common in younger patients. The tumor may extend into the meninges or the ventricular wall leading to abnormally high protein content in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (>100 mg/dL), as well as an occasional pleocytosis of 10 to 100 cells, mostly lymphocytes. Malignant cells present in the CSF can rarely spread to the spinal cord or cause meningeal gliomatosis; however, metastasis of GBM beyond the central nervous system is extremely unusual. About 50% of GBM tumors occupy more than one lobe of a hemisphere or are bilateral. Tumors of this type usually arise from the cerebrum and may rarely exhibit the classic infiltration across the corpus callosum, producing a bilateral (“butterfly”) glioma. The tumor can take on a variety of appearances, depending on the amount of hemorrhage or necrosis present or the age of the tumor. A CT scan of a GBM tumor will usually show an inhomogeneous mass with a hypodense center and a variable ring of enhancement surrounded by edema. The mass effect from the tumor and the surrounding edema may compress the ventricles and cause hydrocephalus.
Cancer cells with stem-cell-like properties have been found in glioblastomas. This may be one cause of their resistance to conventional treatments and their high recurrence rate.
GBM often presents typical features on MRI, but these features are not specific for GBM and may be caused by other conditions. Specifically, when viewed with MRI, GBMs often appear as ring-enhancing lesions. However, other lesions such as abscesses, metastases of malignancies arising outside the central nervous system, tumefactive multiple sclerosis, or other conditions may have a similar appearance. The definitive diagnosis of a suspected GBM on CT or MRI requires a stereotactic biopsy or a craniotomy with tumor resection and pathologic confirmation. Because the grade of the tumor is based on the most malignant portion of the tumor, biopsy or subtotal tumor resection can result in undergrading of the tumor. Imaging of tumor blood flow using perfusion MRI and measuring tumor metabolite concentration with MR spectroscopy may add value to standard MRI, but pathology remains the gold standard for GBM diagnosis.
The treatment of GBM is extremely difficult due to several factors: (1) the tumor cells are very resistant to conventional therapies; (2) the brain is susceptible to damage using conventional therapy; (3) the brain has a very limited capacity for self-repair; and (4) many therapeutic drugs cannot cross the blood-brain barrier to act on the tumor. Symptomatic therapy, including the use of corticosteroids and anticonvulsant agents, focuses on relieving symptoms and improving the patient's neurologic function. However, such symptomatic therapy does nothing to slow the progression of the tumor, and, in the case of administration of phenytoin concurrently with radiation therapy, can result in substantial side effects including erythema multiforme and Steven-Johnson syndrome.
Palliative therapy usually is conducted to improve quality of life and to achieve a longer survival time. Palliative therapy can include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. A maximally feasible resection with maximally tumor-free margins is generally performed along with external beam radiation and chemotherapy. Gross total resection of tumor is associated with better prognoses.
Surgery is the first stage of treatment of glioblastoma. An average GBM tumor contains 1011 cells, which is on average reduced to 109 cells after surgery (a reduction of 99%). Surgery is used to take a section for a pathological diagnosis, to remove some of the symptoms of a large mass pressing against the brain, to remove disease before secondary resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy, and to prolong survival. The greater the extent of tumor removal, the better is the outcome. Removal of 98% or more of the tumor has been associated with a significantly longer and healthier survival time than if less than 98% of the tumor is removed. The chances of near-complete initial removal of the tumor can be greatly increased if the surgery is guided by a fluorescent dye known as 5-aminolevulinic acid. GBM cells are widely infiltrative through the brain at diagnosis, and so despite a “total resection” of all obvious tumor, most people with GBM later develop recurrent tumors either near the original site or at more distant “satellite lesions” within the brain. Other modalities, including radiation, are used after surgery in an effort to suppress and slow recurrent disease.
After surgery, radiotherapy is the mainstay of treatment for people with glioblastoma. A pivotal clinical trial carried out in the early 1970s showed that among 303 GBM patients randomized to radiation or nonradiation therapy, those who received radiation had a median survival more than double those who did not. Subsequent clinical research has attempted to build on the backbone of surgery followed by radiation. On average, radiotherapy after surgery can reduce the tumor size to 107 cells. Whole brain radiotherapy does not improve the results when compared to the more precise and targeted three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy. A total radiation dose of 60-65 Gy has been found to be optimal for treatment.
The use of chemotherapy in GBM in addition to radiation has thus far only resulted in marginal improvements in survival as compared with radiation alone. In the treatment of other malignancies, the addition of chemotherapy to radiation has resulted in substantial improvements in survival, but this has not yet proven to be the case for GBM. One drug that does show results in connection with radiation is temozolomide (TMZ). TMZ plus radiation is now standard for most cases of GBM. TMZ seems to work by sensitizing the tumor cells to radiation.
However, TMZ is often ineffective due to drug resistance as the result of the catalytic activity of the enzyme O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT), which results in repair of the lesion at O6 of the guanine of DNA molecules.
Additionally, cancer stem cells (CSC) are a subpopulation of the tumor that resist therapy and give rise to relapse.
Another therapeutic approach involves the use of the monoclonal antibody bevacizumab. However, unlike some other malignancies in which the use of bevacizumab results in a potentiation of chemotherapy, in GBM, the addition of chemotherapy to bevacizumab did not improve on results from bevacizumab alone. Bevacizumab reduces brain edema and consequent symptoms, and it may be that the benefit from this drug is due to its action against edema rather than any action against the tumor itself. Some patients with brain edema do not actually have any active tumor remaining, but rather develop the edema as a late effect of prior radiation treatment. This type of edema is difficult to distinguish from that due to tumor, and both may coexist. Both respond to bevacizumab.
Another approach that has been proposed is gene transfer. Although gene transfer therapy has the potential to kill cancer cells while leaving healthy cells unharmed, this approach has been beset with many difficulties in other diseases, including the possibility for induction of other types of malignancies and interference with the functioning of the immune system.
Still other treatment modalities have been proposed for GBM, including the use of protein therapeutics, including the soluble CD95-Fc fusion protein APG101, immunotherapy with tumor vaccines, alternating electrical fields, and metabolic therapy. The value of these treatment modalities remains to be determined.
In GBM, the median survival time from the time of diagnosis without any treatment is 3 months, but with treatment survival of 1-2 years is common. Increasing age (>60 years of age) carries a worse prognostic risk. Death is usually due to cerebral edema or increased intracranial pressure.
A good initial Karnofsky Performance Score (KPS) and methylation of the promoter of the O-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) gene are associated with longer survival. A DNA test can be carried out on glioblastomas to determine whether the promoter of the MGMT gene is methylated. Even in patients less than 50 years of age with a KPS of equal to or greater than 90%, the 5-year survival rate is only 14%.
Medulloblastoma is a highly malignant primary brain tumor that originates in the cerebellum or posterior fossa. It is one of the most common malignant brain tumors and is more frequent in people under than 20 years of age than in adults. Medulloblastomas can spread through the CNS and frequently metastasize to different locations in the brain and spine.
It is currently thought that medulloblastoma arises from cerebellar stem cells that have been prevented from dividing and differentiating into their normal cell types. This accounts from the varying histologic variants seen on biopsy. Both perivascular pseudorosette and Homer-Wright rosette pseudorosettes formation are highly characteristic of medulloblastoma and is seen in up to half of the cases. Homer-Wright rosettes are pseudorosettes consisting of tumor cells surrounding a fibrillar area. Also, the classic rosette with tumor cells around a central lumen can be seen. Molecular genetics reveal a loss of genetic information on the distal part of chromosome 17, distal to the p53 gene, possibly accounting for the neoplastic transformation of the undifferentiated cerebellar cells. Medulloblastomas are also seen in Gorlin syndrome and Turcot syndrome. It has been suggested that the JC virus, the cause of multifocal leukoencephalopathy, may be involved in medulloblastoma.
The symptoms of medulloblastoma are mainly due to increased intracranial pressure due to blockage of the fourth ventricle and are predominantly neurological, with other symptoms such as vomiting also occurring.
Treatment begins with maximal resection of the tumor. The addition of radiation to the entire neuraxis and chemotherapy may increase the disease-free survival. This combination may permit a 5 year survival in more than 80% of cases. The presence of desmoplastic features such as connective tissue formation offers a better prognosis. Prognosis is worse if the child is less than 3 years old, there is an inadequate degree of resection, or if there is any CSF, spinal, supratentorial or systemic spread. Dementia post radiotherapy and chemotherapy is a common outcome appearing two to four years following treatment. Increased intracranial pressure may be controlled with corticosteroids or a ventriculoperitoneal shunt.
Currently, chemotherapy for medulloblastoma involves a combination of lomustine, cisplatin, carboplatin, vincristine, or cyclophosphamide. Another chemotherapeutic agent, vismodegib (2-chloro-N-(4-chloro-3-pyridin-2-ylphenyl)-4-methylsulfonylbenzamide) has been proposed for use in medulloblastoma.
The outcome in medulloblastoma varies based on cytogenetic subgroups. A poor prognosis is associated with a gain of 6q or amplification of MYC or MYCN. An intermediate prognosis is associated with gain of 17q or an i(17q) without gain of 6q or amplification of MYC or MYCN. A relatively good prognosis is associated with 6q and 17q balanced or 6q deletion.
Patients diagnosed with a medulloblastoma are 50 times more likely to die than a matched member of the general population. Although 5-year survival rates are about 72% in children, 20-year survival rates are only 51% in children. Long-term sequelae of standard treatment include hypothalamic-pituitary and thyroid dysfunction and intellectual impairment; the hormonal and intellectual deficits created by these therapies caused significant impairment of the survivors.
Therefore, there is a need for improved therapies for both glioblastoma multiforme and medulloblastoma that provide improved survival with reduced side effects and impairment of function in surviving patients.
There is a particular need for therapeutic modalities that can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), that can suppress the growth and division of cancer stem cells (CSC), and that can avoid inactivation by O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT). There is also a particular need for therapeutic modalities that yield increased response rates and improved quality of life for patients with these malignancies.